130 Athletes with particular health conditions who take medicaments falling into the category of the prohibited substances can apply for a TUE (Therapeutic Use Exemption) to allow them to use the substance for health purposes under strict conditions. Bans often last four years for a first offence; for repeated offences they can even last for a lifetime. Do you know any case of athletes whose career has been affected by doping charges? DOPING Doping in sports is the use of forbidden substances by athletes to improve their performances, gaining an advantage over competitors. Types of doping Doping involves a number of substances and methods, with the most common including: anabolic steroids, used to increase muscle mass and strength and accelerate recovery; stimulants, substances like amphetamines that increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and improve concentration; hormones, in particular Human Growth Hormone (HGH), which facilitates muscle growth and recovery; diuretics, used to quickly reduce weight or hide the presence of other forbidden substances in drug tests; blood doping, i.e. using substances acting on blood to increase oxygen transport to muscles. alertness: prontezza liver: fegato regardless of: indipendentemente da stroke: ictus Physical consequences of doping Doping may have long-term effects, both on the athlete s health, but also on their career, reputation, and credibility. As far as the athletes health is concerned, doping substances such as steroids or hormones can increase the risk of heart attack or stroke, cause liver damage, hormonal imbalances, and increased risk of cancer. Stimulants can cause anxiety, insomnia, and cardiovascular problems. Athletes using doping may also experience mood disorders, psychosis, and addiction; moreover, the pressure and need for secrecy associated with doping can also contribute to significant mental stress. 238 HISTORY, PHILOSOPHY, AND CIVIC EDUCATION Anti-doping laws and legal consequences on athletes The main body responsible for fighting against doping in sport is primarily the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), established in 1999. WADA annually publishes a list of forbidden substances and methods, while developing and strengthening the World Anti-Doping Code, a set of policies, rules, and regulations adopted by hundreds of sports and organisations all over the world, including the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and National Anti-Doping Organizations (NADOs). Athletes have to submit to rigorous tests, both in and out of the competitions, and they are considered responsible for any prohibited substance found in their body, regardless of intent . Athletes who are found guilty of doping are given severe penalties, including disqualification, loss of medals and titles, and long-term bans from competitions ; in some cases, penalties and disqualification may concern the entire team. From an ethical point of view, doping damages the integrity of the sport, weakening the value of legitimate achievements and the trust in sports and athletes. A charge of doping often leads athletes to public shame, social isolation, and permanent damage to their image .