2.4 DEVELOPMENTAL AND EDUCATIONAL THEORIES 52 FREUD Developmental and educational theories study children s emotional, cognitive, social, and educational changes, providing tools to understand human growth and learning. Who was Freud? Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was an Austrian neurologist who deeply influenced not only further studies of the human mind, but also literature, art, and education. Among his many theories, the following had the major impact. In this stage, children may develop the Oedipus (boys for their mothers) or the Electra (girls for their fathers) complex, an unconscious desire for their parents of the opposite sex. The mind According to Freud, our mind can be divided into three levels: the conscious part, which is what we are aware of; the preconscious part, which contains easily accessible memories; the unconscious part, which houses deep-rooted and almost inaccessible desires and memories that largely influence our behaviour. Following this, human behaviour is the result of the interactions among three parts of the mind: the Id, the instinctual part, based on the pleasure principle, whose forbidden and unacceptable desires and emotions have to be hidden but are often revealed through dreams; the Ego, the rational part, based on the reality principle, which acts as a mediator between the Id and the Superego; the Superego, the moral part, which strives for ideal behaviour according to societal and parental standards and acts like a conscience. Freud believed that the Id and the Superego are often in conflict, thus the Ego often activates unconscious defence mechanism to reduce anxiety and stress (e.g. denial, repression, projection, displacement, regression, and sublimation). By exploring the mind, and making the invisible (unconscious) visible, Freud believed that his theory could offer an insight into the motivations that influence our thoughts, feeling, and actions. Psychosexual theory In his theory of psychosexual development, Freud identified five stages which people have to go through in order to develop a healthy personality; unresolved conflicts during these stages could lead to personality issues in adulthood. Oral stage (birth to 1 year): the child experiences pleasure through the mouth; Anal stage (1 year to 3 years): the child takes pleasure in eliminating or retaining faeces; Phallic stage (3 to 6 years): the child is focused on their genitals; Latent stage (6 years to puberty): sexual impulses are repressed and children s energy is directed to other activities; Genital stage (puberty to adulthood): teenagers direct their sexual energy to peers. Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development aware: consapevole deep-rooted: ben radicato distressing: angosciante to house: ospitare to strive for: impegnarsi per 112 Oral stage Anal stage Phallic stage Latent stage Genital stage